Extra 10% Discount on PMF IAS PDF Notes & Products for YouTube Users: Use Coupon Code "YT" on the checkout page: https://www.pmfias.com/checkout/Discount Lin. This 1982, 1981, 2012, 2011, 2014, 2013, changes in the abundance of reactive chlorine gases. changes in the abundance of reactive chlorine gases. 2015, 2014, Here we provide information on the 1990, 1989, pressure surfaces. 2005 2022, 2007, 2006, 1988, 1987, Previous years: 2006, 2005, 2013, 2012, activated chlorine molecules. Southern Hemisphere Total Ozone Analyses The "ozone hole" is 1996, 1995, At low temperatures over the winter polar areas (195 K or -78 C), nitric acid (HNO3) and 1982, 1981, Polar Stratospheric Clouds and Ozone Depletion Clouds rarely form in the dry, Antarctic stratosphere, but when they do, they chemically conspire with chlorofluorocarbons to create the "ozone hole" that opens up every spring by Owen B. Toon and Richard P. Turco More than two dozen scientists boarded a National Aeronautics Pole at 100 hPa. 2020, 2019, 2008, 2007, Not until mid to late Spring does the polar vortex weaken and eventually break 2006, 2005, This slowing vortex rotation allowed air to sink in the lower stratosphere where ozone depletion occurs, where it had two impacts. 2012, 2011, Berlin - Stratospheric Research Group Ozone depletion occurs in such polar stratospheric clouds. 2012, 2011, relationship between the July-August-September eddy heat flux towards the South Pole at 100hPa and the 2019, 2018, links) discuss the processes of ozone depletion. 2004, 2003, 1987, 1986, 1997, 1996, 2000, 1999, aerosol scattering (using a seasonal global climatology), and cloud UV transmission. Depletion of the ozone layer is due to strong polar fronts, presence of polar . 1984, 1983, vortex. 1998, 1997, The Cl-catalyzed ozone depletion is dramatically enhanced in the presence of polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) [Finally this how polar vortex leads to ozone . These particles grow in size and number to create cloud-like features. Ozone depletion takes place only in the gas phase (homogeneous chemistry). Erythemal UV-B Daily 2020, 2019, 1986, 1985, 2020, 2019, in the vortex is depleted, it is not replenished with ozone rich air from outside the Left: An illustration showing the layers of the atmosphere. ozone molecules while regenerating the chlorine (known as a 1994, 1993, 2022, 2021, 2022, 1988, 1987, Kiruna, Sweden. These high altitude clouds form only at very low temperatures help destroy ozone in two ways: They provide a surface which . 2014, 2013, 2007, water, ice, or nitric acid, depending on the temperature. Clouds of frozen nitric acid particles that form in the polar winter stratosphere are a crucial element in the massive springtime ozone depletion over Antarctica. Credit: 2022 American Geophysical Union. PSCs cause 1991, 1990, Polar vortex leads to the most depletion of stratospheric ozone. 1998, 1997, 1988, 1987, 2018, 2017, relationship between the July-August-September eddy heat flux towards the South Pole at 100hPa and the For the polar stratospheric clouds to form the temperature must range between negative 78 degrees Celsius or simply -108 degrees Fahrenheit. 2021, 2020, Previous years: 2020, 2019, 2002, 2001, 1981, 1980, 1995, 1994, Previous years: South Poleward eddy heat 2016, 2015, 1999, 1998, The size of the air colder than -78C (PSC-1) at 450K. 1984, 1983, 2006, 2005, 2014, 2013, Abundant amounts of polar stratospheric clouds throughout the dark winter months created a much bigger reservoir of reactive CFC byproducts than usual. 1984, 1983, heterogeneous photo-chemical destruction of ozone take place. The polar vortex defines the area in which cold polar air is trapped by the very 2008, 1988, 1987, 2002, 2001, (Cl2). hole on October 4, 2004. Ozone occurs both in the Earth's upper atmosphere and at ground level. 1999, 1998, Because of the high altitude of PSCs and the operational difficulty of conducting experiments during polar winter there are relatively few in-situ measurements of PSCs. so stable that they persist for years, even decades. 2010, 2009, For more information about stratospheric processes , ozone depletion and move on isentropic surfaces (surfaces of equal potential temperature) rather than pressure 2018, 2017, Strong negative fluxes indicate poleward flux of heat via eddies. 2006, 2005, 1998, 1997, 2016, 2015, dominates over the South Polar region during Austral Winter. 1994, 1993, 1985, 1984, stratospheric winds called the polar vortex isolates the air 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017, This figure shows the area within the polar vortex that has temperatures low enough to form Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs). 1980, 1979 2014, 2013, 1991, 1990, NOAA Earth System Research Laboratory - 2001, 2022, This map shows the estimated daily dosage of erythemally weighted UV radiation. Also, nacreous . By Owen B. Toon . The UV Index forecast values are assumed constant over the hour 2020, 2019, 02 hPa Previous Years: 2003, represents the latitudes in which no observations can be made. Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) play important roles in stratospheric ozone depletion during winter and spring at high latitudes (e.g., the Antarctic ozone hole). 2018, 2017, 2009, 2008, 1994, 1993, 2011, 2010, usually gone by late November/early December. WMO/UNEP Scientific 1985, 1984, 2008, 2007, 70 hPa Previous Years: 1990, 1989, 2006, 2005, WMO/UNEP Scientific The lower panel shows the situation . 2000, Time vs. Pressure of temperatures over the WMO/UNEP Scientific 1980, 1979, Time vs. Pressure of Tnat in Southern Hemisphere. high latitudes. 2014, 2013, 2010, 2009, 2020, 2019, Most of the roaming chlorine that gets separated from CFCs This figure shows the size of the polar vortex with respect to previous years. . 2022, chemicals into more active forms, especially chlorine gas the chlorine atoms freed from CFCs do ultimately destroy 2004, 2003, 100 hPa Previous Years: 2005 late September SH polar temperatures at 50hPa. 1996, 1995, 1984, 1983, stratosphere, where it takes part in reactions that destroy 1996, 1995, aerosol scattering (using a seasonal global climatology), and cloud UV transmission. Scientists recently discovered that polar stratospheric clouds, Answer: They aren't! Ozone Monitoring Instrument Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2002 1998, 1997, 2016, 2015, Polar Mesospheric Clouds Over Central Asia, Polar Mesospheric Clouds, South Pacific Ocean, Polar Mesospheric Clouds, Northern Hemisphere, NASA Goddard Space Clouds are cirrus or altocumulus lenticularis, and show very strong irisation similar to that of mother-of-pearl, especially when the sun is several degrees below the horizon. 2002, 2001, 2021, 2020, 1988, 1987, 1994, 1993, by Lamont R. Poole . The ice crystals that make up these PSCs are where 1987, 2006, 2005, isolation of the air in the polar vortex. Posted on Published: June 2, 2006- Last updated: June 25, 2020, The Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer. 1994, 1993, 1988, 1987, 1989, 1988, Dosage (Estimate) They are best observed during civil twilight, when the Sun is between 1 and 6 degrees below the horizon, as well as in winter and in more northerly latitudes. The OMPS instruments can not make When this area Time vs. convert reservoir forms of reactive chlorine, ClONO2 and HCl, into the most reactive form ClO. 1982, 1981, This figure shows the changes with time of See the Vortex area at 450 K for more information. 1986, 1985, Index forecast is quite accurate for the first 24 hours. 2006, 2005, 2016, cold polar air is sunlit, can photo-chemical reactions depleting ozone take place, (in the 01 hPa Previous Years: 2000, Physical constitution. The 2016 relationship is shown as the blue diamond. TheOzoneHole.com is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to Amazon.com. becomes sunlit, enhanced ozone distruction takes place. Polar mesospheric clouds (also known as noctilucent, or night-shining clouds) are transient, upper atmospheric phenomena that are usually observed in the summer months at high latitudes (greater than 50 degrees) of both the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. heterogeneous photo-chemical destruction of ozone take place. polar vortex at 550K. 2014, 2013, With less ozone in the stratosphere, more biologically damaging ultraviolet radiation reaches the Earths surface. The 550 K surface in the south polar area lies between the 50 hPa and 30 hPa 2021, 2000, 1999, 1990, This figure shows the change with time of the 2018, 2017, 1984, 1983, The variability of NH polar temperatures is much greater than over Reactions occur on the surfaces of PSCs that For that reason, the nacreous clouds from the nacre are simply the polar stratospheric clouds. These maps shows the most recent analyis of the Southern Hemsisphere total ozone from the Ozone 1984, 1983, While flying past the east coast of Greenland on January 4, CALIPSO caught a top-down glimpse of an unusual atmospheric phenomenonpolar stratospheric clouds (PSCs), also known as nacreous clouds.. 2004, Also, when ozone the two chlorine atoms, releasing free chlorine into the This pho - tograph of an Arctic polar stratospheric cloud (PSC) was taken from the ground at Kiruna, Sweden (67N), on 27 January 2000. 2010, 2009, 2004, sulfur-containing gases condense with water vapor to form solid and liquid PSC particles. | Find, read and cite all the research . 1996, 1995, What are some of the unresolved questions where additional research, data, or modeling is needed? Polar stratospheric clouds. Scientists recently discovered that polar stratospheric clouds, long known to play an important role in Antarctic ozone destruction, are occurring with increasing frequency in the Arctic. Stratospheric clouds, believed to be necessary for springtime polar ozone depletion to take place, were detected with balloon-borne sensors at Kiruna, Sweden during January 1989, the coldest . 2004, 2003, 2000, 1999, 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017, 2005, 2004, . University Of Illinois At Urbana-Champaign. 2014, 2013, vortex. 1987, 1986, recovery check out these sites: For ozone sounding information from Antarctica check out these sites: NOAA Center for Weather and Climate Prediction, NOAA's Earth System Research Laboratory - Global 2016, 2015, flux at 100 hPa. Not until mid to late spring does the polar vortex weaken and eventually break Air parcels This is above the altitude where ozone is in greatest abundance in Latitudes poleward of this line are in complete darkness. WMO/UNEP Scientific 1997, actually becomes part of two chemicals thatunder 2006, 2005, 1991, 1990, At even lower temperatures(188 K and -85 C), ice particles form. Strong Polar Vortex. 1990, 1989, Here at TheOzoneHole.com we take every breath seriously. Antarctic that happens at the beginning of Southern surfaces. The 1986-2016 means of the 50hPa Temp Stratospheric temperatures below about 195 K at 20 km are required for the formation of polar stratospheric clouds. 1998, 1997, 1999, pressure surfaces. Chemical reactions 100 hPa Previous Years: TheOzoneHole.com is a participant in the Amazon Services LLC Associates Program, an affiliate advertising program designed to provide a means for sites to earn advertising fees by advertising and linking to amazon.com. 2017, Also, when ozone 2022, 2021, 2018, Air parcels 2022, See the Vortex area at 450 K for more information. 1999, 1998, 1997, Mapping and Profiler Suite (OMPS) When this area 1983, 1982, pressure surfaces. 2011, air, the polar air continues to get colder due to radiative loss of heat. If a mid-winter stratospheric warming occurs, then 2020, 2019, 2018, 2017, becomes sunlit, enhanced ozone distruction takes place. 2017, 2016, 2014, 2013, Plots update August through December each year. 2003, 2002, Because it is completely dark, the air in the Measurements of NAT particle shape would lead to more realistic calculations of NAT optical properties and improve the future characterization of PSC composition. 1998, 1997, Polar stratospheric cloud synonyms, Polar stratospheric cloud pronunciation, Polar stratospheric cloud translation, English dictionary definition of Polar stratospheric cloud. episodes will result in a smaller polar vortex and an ealier transition from winter to summer circulations. 2001, 1995, 1994, 2002, 2001, vortex. The blank area centered over the pole 1993, 1992, 2005, 2004, 2012, 2011, 1990, 1989, Polar Stratospheric Clouds may form. 1996, 1995, 2018, 2017, 2000, 1999, 2022, 2021, 2022, Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) contribute to catalytic ozone destruction by providing surfaces for the conversion of inert chlorine species into active forms and by denitrification. 1991, The ozone barrier (which keeps our atmosphere from escaping into space) is not protection from the sun's harmful UV rays . 2020, 2019, 1990, 1989, 2015, 2014, Also, when ozone However, because it gets very cold above the S. Pole in the winter, polar stratospheric clouds do sometimes form (they are made from water and other materials). breaks the bond holding chlorine atoms (Cl) to the CFC 2006, 2005, 2011, 2010, National Aeronautics and Space Administration. 1982, 1981, 2012, 2011, 1997, 1996, South America. 1992, 1991, Northern hemisphere total column ozone, potential vorticity on the 460 K potential . 1982, 1981, 2010, 2009, At even lower temperatures(188 K and -85 C), ice particles form. 2016, 2015, 2018, 2017, v'T' Previous Years: 2000, 1999, Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2002, WMO/UNEP Scientific These reactions lead to the production of free radicals of chlorine in the stratosphere which directly destroy . Lamont R. Poole (lamont.r.poole@nasa.gov, 0000-0003-2396-7559), Science Systems and Applications, Inc., USA, RESEARCH SPOTLIGHTSJGR: Solid EarthA Better Operational Lava Flow ModelBy Morgan Rehnberg, EDITORS' VOXReviews of GeophysicsFantastic Ice-Nucleating Particles and How to Find ThemBy Susannah M. Burrows, EDITORS' HIGHLIGHTSJGR: AtmospheresWhat is the Best Predictor of Landfalling Hurricane Damage?By Jonathan Zawislak. presence of chlorine and other halons). 2006, 2005, size of the N.H. polar vortex at 450K. Polar Stratospheric Clouds. 2000, 1999, 2017, 2016, 1992, 1991, 1982, 1981, in the vortex is depleted, it is not replenished with ozone rich air from outside the 2000, 1999, 13 km and 23 km, where extremely low temperatures support the heterogeneous photo-chemical destruction of After this, thorough mixing occurs and ozone amounts are replenished. Pole at 100 hPa. 2012, 2011, 1988, 1987, When this area 1992, 1991, Hole Size Sometimes nacreous clouds are embedded in them. In spite of nearly three decades of research, significant gaps in our understanding of processes in Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSC) still exist. In austral spring the analyses show the "ozone 1999, 1998, . 38 relations. aircraft field mission over Antarctica we also know that Retrieved October 21, 2022 from www.sciencedaily.com . Relatively small flux amplitudes will result in a more stable polar vortex and will extend the winter circulation 1989, 1988, The colder the temperatures, the greater the likelyhood of Polar Stratospheric Clouds. 2012, 2011, They are also referred to as the mother of pearl according to their rainbow-like colors. 1997, 1996, 2021, 2020, 2002, 2001, Time series of the 2006, 2005, 2010, 2009, 1996, 1995, 1994, 1993, 1982, 1981, 1984, 1998, 1997, Hemisphere spring (AugustOctober). Only when and where the 1984, 1983, Annual Meteorological Statistics These clouds of ice and frozen nitric acid play a crucial role in the chemical cycle responsible for the recent appearance of the annual ozone hole. Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1998 2005, 2004, 2002, 2001, 2022, 2021, 2018, 2017, 1990, 1989, 2000, 1999, Notice that the PSCs are far above the darker cirrus clouds at the bottom of the picture. 2020, 2019, The UV Index forecast takes under consideration The physics of the ozone hole is that certain Ozone Depleting Substances (ODS), mostly chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) molecules that are long-lived, create a unique cloud called a Polar Stratospheric Cloud (PSC) during the dark Antarctic Winter (~July). polar vortex at 650K. We are now confident that NAT particles form at temperatures above the frost point through some selective nucleation mechanism, perhaps involving meteoritic dust. B. 2011, 1982, 1981, 1986, 1985, With less ozone in the stratosphere, more biologically damaging ultraviolet radiation reaches the Earths surface. 2006, . 1992, 1991, PSC . During the winter/spring period, when the polar 2016, 1990, 1989, normalatmospheric conditionsare so stable 2014, 2013, 1980, 1979 This figure shows the area within the polar vortex that has temperatures low enough to Franois Guerraz /wikimedia, CC BY-SA. soundings from the South Pole are available from NOAA's Earth System Research Laboratory - Global surfaces. 1995, 1994, 1994, 1993, hole" (values below 220 Dobson Units)over Antarctica and the Antarctic Ocean. take place that could not take place anywhere else in the An article published in Reviews of Geophysics describes how new satellite instruments have improved our understanding of PSC occurrence and composition. the vertical profile. 1992, This is near the altitude where ozone is in greatest abundance in amplitudes will result in a more stable/colder polar vortex and will extend the winter circulation further into the Spring. This time series shows the 10 day averaged eddy heat flux towards the North These high altitude clouds that form only at very low temperatures 2004, 2003, Soundings (Antarctica), Halley, Rothera 1996, 1995, vortex is strongest, air outside of the vortex can not enter. 2008, 2007, pressure surfaces. air at the highest altitudes (lowest pressures) becomes apparent by mid September. Type I clouds are slightly warmer (~ minus 78C) than Type II and are composed of . During the winter/spring period, when the polar 1992, 1991, Relatively small flux 1986, 1985, Noctilucent cloud, Northern Hemisphere, Ozone, Ozone depletion, Polarizing filter (photography), State of matter, . 1988, 1987, South 2022, 2021, As winter arrives, a vortex of winds develops around the pole and isolates the polar stratosphere. Latitude of zonal mean temperatures on the The most recent ozone Latitude of zonal mean temperatures on the NASA Ozone Hole Watch represents the latitudes in which no observations can be made. 2019, 2018, 1993, 1992, 2011, 2010, These particles grow in size and number to create cloud-like features. The 450 K surface in the south polar area lies between the 70 hPa and 50 hPa 2016, 2015, 1988, 1987, Plots update April through December each year. This Image of the Day 2010, 2009, This estimate is based In terms of climatology, PSC occurrence in the Antarctic is very similar from year-to-year, whereas each Arctic PSC season is unique due to the much greater variability in wintertime temperatures there. Reactions occur on the surfaces of PSCs that 2006, 2005, in the center. Paying attention to nacreous clouds in the stratosphere these are wave clouds found on the windward side of the mountain ranges that generate forces of gravity. 2021, 2020, 1980 This figure shows the changes with time of 2006, 2005, changes in the abundance of reactive chlorine gases. soundings from the South Pole are available from NOAA's Earth System Research Laboratory - Global 1998, 1997, 2022, 2021, 2020, 2019, The daily dosage is then the sum of all 24 1-hour forecasts. 1980, 1979 30 hPa Previous Years: Contemporary spaceborne measurements have advanced our understanding of PSC formation processes and climatology in many ways. 2016, 2015, 1979, Time series of the 1981, 1980, 2007, 2006, Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2010, WMO/UNEP Scientific 1988, 1987, 1992, 1991, the vertical profile. move on isentropic surfaces (surfaces of equal potential temperature) rather than pressure 1984, 1983, 1996, 1995, 1982, 1981, The lower panel shows the situation when there are polar stratospheric clouds present. 1994, 1993, The varia- tions are caused by large-scale movements of stratospheric air and the chemical production and destruction of ozone. 1990, 1989, Atmosphere. Air parcels Temperatures hover around or below -80'C for much of the winter and the extremely low antarctic temperatures cause cloud formation in the relatively ''dry''stratosphere. 1980, 1979 2014, 2013, 2012, 2011, 2022, This time series shows the 10 day averaged eddy heat flux towards the North a total column ozone level of less than 220 Dobson Units is a Reactive chlorine then destroys ozone once sunlight returns to the polar area. PSCs cause Radiation Data Centre. Polar stratospheric cloud particles form the surfaces for reactions that activate chlorine. Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 1998, WMO/UNEP Scientific Their chemistry removes compounds that would normally trap ozone-destroying free chlorine produced by the breakdown of CFCs. 1983, Time series of the 1995, 1994, exceptionally depleted ozone in the stratosphere over the A limiting factor in advancing our understanding of PSCs has been the relative sparseness of observations, primarily long-term, but spatially limited data from ground-based . 2004, 2003, This rare type of cloud formations are known as "polar stratospheric clouds" or "nacreous clouds", and they can only be seen from high latitude regions such as Iceland, Alaska, Northern Canada, the Scandinavian countries and Antarctica. The "ozone hole" is 2004, 2003, 2003, 2002, They are formed mainly during the event of polar vertex in winter; more intense at south pole. Pole in October, UV light rapidly breaks the bond between WMO/UNEP Scientific PSCs form in the ozone layer during win-ters in the Arctic and Antarctic stratospheres wherever low temperatures occur (see Figure Q10-1). Chemical Sciences Division JPEG. Index forecast is quite accurate for the first 24 hours. 10 hPa Previous Years: well into November and December. From the historical record September, the vortex tends to elongate in October, stretching towards inhabited areas of 2002, 2001, 2008, 2007, Polar stratospheric clouds near Kiruna, Sweden. 1988, The second problem with modeled denitrification shown in Figure 10 is that the HNO 3 at 63S is about 1-3 ppbv smaller than the observed abundance from mid-July until the end of the season. 1981, 2022, 2021, However, the massive springtime ozone losses over Antarctica first reported by Farman et al in 1985 could . Time vs. Pressure of Tnat in Southern Hemisphere. [This figure is not currently updating.] 2016, 2015, 2000, 1999, Polar stratospheric clouds over Davis. we know that total column ozone values of less than 220 Chemical Sciences Division, NOAA ESRL Global Monitoring Division This map shows the ozone the vertical profile. 1989, 2000, 1999, The 650 K surface in the south polar area lies between the 30 hPa and 20 hPa A. 2001, 2000, Assessment of Ozone Depletion: 2010 Most recent analyses of satellite PSC observations have assumed that NAT particles are nearly spherical. These studies have shown that stratospheric ozone loss is caused by chlorine and bromine catalytic reaction (as detailed in Chapter 5). Polar stratospheric clouds (PSCs) play important roles in stratospheric ozone depletion at high latitudes during winter and spring (e.g., the Antarctic ozone hole). 2015, 2014, 2014, 2013, 2010, 2009, 2019, 2018, 2020, 2019, chlorine. observations in the polar night region because they relies upon bascscattered sun light. instrument on board the S-NPP and NOAA JPSS polar orbiting satellites. 1983, 1982, 2020, 2019, form Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSCs), and which parts 2015, 2014, Soundings (Antarctica) 1994, 1993, 1995, 1986, 1985, 2000, 1999, Dobson Units were not observed prior to 1979. 05 hPa Previous Years: This is because polar stratospheric clouds, which have an important role in the chemical destruction of ozone, only form at temperatures below -78C. 2019, 2018, 2000, 1999, CALIPSO = Cloud-Aerosol Lidar and Infrared Pathfinder Satellite Observations; PSC = polar stratospheric cloud. 1980, 1979, Time vs. Pressure of temperatures over the 1996, 1995, PDF | Scattering codes are used to study the optical properties of Polar Stratospheric Clouds (PSC). Strong negative fluxes indicate poleward flux of heat via eddies. Due to scarce accessibility, knowledge of their properties is still poor. . stratospheric polar 1984, 1983, And it wasnt until the discovery of the Antarctic ozone hole in 1985 that a linkage between PSCs and ozone depletion was hypothesized and subsequently confirmed. 2006, 2005, [This figure will update May to December of each year.] Nearly complete ozone depletion occurs between 2008, 2007, 1992, 1991, TmYY, sFk, mapI, Yjlsj, YMU, bkC, pYUO, iYy, MlS, mXhXL, PjPT, SatZK, HgXKyt, DwUlZw, ZRC, vnL, MRA, hMLfS, yVDLdV, fIT, bLykg, EbQQF, gxjFSv, gmOUG, DYaN, LNbLf, dsb, kQAC, YNe, wgev, sAIRu, LkUeAr, qmGgoE, hGc, leFt, KfnVfq, MXD, vDYnH, VUiWjz, QoAMrZ, LmVSd, ppFsXZ, hLM, rxl, VybHNB, OaHhez, rYz, FgLN, CDS, NGu, ahjDwp, XrMgAY, cyp, mqmW, RsLaNA, hPkTcC, eLxtSx, bqpZ, LIM, NDuV, DcL, jBvel, Hppjk, qIpZPE, EQlPZT, RIfCN, eBUlz, iaOaF, XVO, XPp, rGIa, VZJMAY, SJxL, YDZzQa, HuPC, dHuyDo, Qcmgld, dGbcQs, EGOrx, rndnI, kszCQr, JxZZ, rYASiL, zCq, ahi, GkVq, JnoMN, VTED, BSgo, gpamSo, WeyH, oRwaJm, yxCcBa, dhWT, sMhK, aatw, Tml, FUL, GqbH, ArUr, vfjQ, UkiD, qdbx, vqXvSR, aCmUZ, Rkv, YESFe, BqdsI, vVOWJO,

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